Biblio Format	Annotation
Abeyasingha, Shanti "Contextualizing Theology in Sri Lanka: Some Reflections." Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft und Religionswissenschaft 66 (1982): 226-228.	General thoughts on developing a contextualized theology in Sri Lanka, including issues of colonial history and religious syncretism (with four religions--Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam--present as well as an animistic foundation to which people turn in times of trouble). The author proposes that the reality of four centuries framed by religious syncretism, reflected on in faith, should be the starting point for any effort to contextualize theology.
Beyerhaus, Peter. "Possessio and Syncretism in Biblical Perspective." In Christopaganism or Indigenous Christianity?, ed. Tetsunao Yamamori and Charles Russell Taber, 119-42. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1975.	We can distinguish between three stages of possessio: In the first stage God invades this occupied world of nations and establishes bridgeheads of his sovereignty. Here the whole emphasis lies on demonstrating the uniqueness of God's Godhead, and in guarding it against the insidious counterattacks of the present demonic usurper of the world. In the second stage these bridgeheads of elected communities become the basis of operation for a progressive reconquest of the whole ethnic and cultural territory which they represent. The third stage lies beyond this present age. Here the Devil, the prince of this world, will completely be removed and the kingdoms of the world will totally have become the kingdom of the Lord. In missiology we are only concerned with the first two stages of possessio. We may distinguish them as exclusive and comprehensive possessio. If they are seen against syncretism as the other end of the axis, a tripartition of our discussion becomes logical. We have to speak firstly about the principles of biblical identity, secondly about the danger of its syncretistic falsification, and finally we have to outline a missionary strategy of translation which is aware of both.
Beyerhaus, Peter. "The Christian Encounter with Afro-Asiatic Movements." In Christopaganism or Indigenous Christianity?, ed. Tetsunao Yamamori and Charles Russell Taber, 77-96. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1975.	This reflection determines the procedure of this chapter. In the first part I want to describe the phenomenon of the Afro-messianic movements in the categories of anthropology and comparative religion. In the second part I want to identify the syncretistic forces working in these movements from the missiological point of view. In the third part I want to indicate how an improved missionary communication could counteract syncretism by taking in possession the legitimate questions in it, and thus pave the way for a truly indigenous Christian church in South Africa.
Chastain, Warren C. "Should Christians Pray the Muslim Salat?" International Journal of Frontier Missions 12:3 (July-Sept. 1995): 161-164.	How to avoid syncretism when applying contextualization to real situations is critical for successful church planting. A key factor is worship and prayer. Here are 15 reasons for rejecting praying the Muslim prayer salat.
Daidanso, ma Djongwe. "An African Critique of African Theology," Evangelical Review of Theology 7:1 (April 1983): 63-72.	Explores African theology, introducing the background and sources and three main tendencies: 1) ethnotheologians who consider ATRs as valid as Christianity; 2) syncretistic theologians who are torn between the politico-socio-religious analysis and the quest for African identity and 3) evangelical theologians who work in context of an infallible Word of God and appropriately critical attitudes towards their context. Concludes with critical remarks in four categories: 1) terminology and definitions; 2) the foundation; 3) the contents; and 4) areas of application.
Etuk, Udo. "The Theology of Contextualization in Africa: A Cover for Traditional Cultural Revival." Catalyst 16:3 (1986): 201-20.	The article shows that recent calls for the Africanization of Christianity (or contextualization) are an inversion of the perennial Christian task of evangelizing not only Africa but the whole world. To accomplish this, a number of practices from African traditional cultures are highlighted, and it is argued that these practices are inconsistent with the centrality, uniqueness, and soteriological role of Jesus Christ. Contextualization theology, the article argues, is fueled by several factors including political-cultural awakening. There can and needs be renewals in forms of worship which are culture-bound without compromising the essential gospel message. Also in Concordia Journal 11 (1985): 214-222.
Gilliland, Dean S. "Context is Critical in 'Islampur' Case." Evangelical Missions Quarterly 34:4 (October 1998): 415-17.	Provides context to respond to Parshall's critique (EMQ 34:4 (October 1998): 404-10) of crossing the line from contextualization to syncretism in Muslim evangelism.
Haleblian, Krikor. "The Problem of Contextualization." Missiology 11:1 (January 1983): 95-111.	Purpose of article is to identify and analyze a number of problems raised by the use of "contextualization" and offer potential ways to resolve them. Seven issues are chosen for discussion: 1) defining the term, 2) differences from indigenization, 3) the legitimate agents for contextualization, 4) syncretism, 5) the limits of contextualization, 6) the gospel core, and 7) hermeneutics.
Heideman, Eugene S. "Syncretism, Contextualization, Orthodoxy, and Heresy." Missiology 25:1 (January 1997): 37-49.	Syncretism and contextualization are often heard by Third World and marginalized Christians as code words of power designed to maintain the traditional authority of missionaries and leaders of Western Christianity, with its roots in the Trinitarian dogma established in the fourth century. In our times, when the Christian Pith has to be thought out and lived in many non- Western cultures, it is important to focus more carefully on the second and third centuries, when the Christian apologists defended their faith and sought means to formulate liturgical and theological language in an age of pluralism, syncretism, and ritualism.
Heldenbrand, Richard. "Missions to Muslims: Cutting the Nerve?" Evangelical Missions Quarterly 18:3 (July 1982): 134-39.	Early debate as to the biblical integrity of Parshall and Kraft in their advocacy for contextualizing work among Muslims. Questions whether forms that, as Parshall concedes, "are deeply imbedded in the very innermost being of every Muslim" can be retained with Christian integrity, or whether the Christian understanding of things is lost in practices which, far from being even syncretistic, remain essentially Islamic, and maintains that Kraft oversteps biblical boundaries in his eagerness to find common ground with Muslims.
Hesselgrave, David J. "The Contextualization Continuum." Gospel in Context 2:3 (July 1979): 4-11.	Attempt to lay out a model describing the major categories of contextualization approaches (apostolic accommodation, prophetic accommodation, and syncretistic accommodation). Focus on the controlling influence o four epistemological and theological background in determining our preferred definition. Later appeared as chap. 11 in Contextualization: Meanings, Methods and Models.
Hollenweger, Walter J. "A Plea for a Theologically Responsible Syncretism." Missionalia 25:1 (April 1997): 5-18.	Saayman is correct in his view on mission in today's Russia: everything depends on how missionaries go there. Christianity is a syncretism par excellence, as is evident in the Bible and throughout history. The experiences of western missionaries in Russia amount to a clash between two types of syncretism. In the West there is an upsurge of interest in religion, but for the churches to see this as a mere business opportunity would amount to irresponsible syncretism. The church should enter into dialogue with medicine, economics and science, the "principalities and powers" of contemporary society. As in Colossians, the church should engage the "powers" by using their language but at the same time correcting them, thus producing responsible syncretisms. This is illustrated with reference to the challenge facing Christians to confront the (capitalist) economism of the West.
Kato, Byang H. "The Gospel, Cultural Context and Religious Syncretism." In Let the Earth Hear His Voice: International Congress on World Evangelization Lausanne, Switzerland. Official Reference Volume: Papers and Responses, ed. J. D. Douglas, 1216-23. Minneapolis, MN: World Wide Publications, 1975.	If there was a time in Africa when there was a need of the, clean-cut Gospel it is today. It is therefore, a great privilege for me to share with God's servants my understanding of the Gospel in Africa and the challenge it faces in the area of syncretism. The final word for the African Christian is to make Christianity culturally relevant without destroying its ever-abiding presentation.
Kinsler, F. Ross. "Mission and Context: The Current Debate about Contextualization." Evangelical Missions Quarterly 14:1 (January 1978): 23-29.	Outlines current issues in the early debates over the term contextualization: 1) it is concerned not only with the communication of the gospel, but its very nature; 2) in some circles the debate focuses on issues of syncretism; 3) it is also concerned with tradition and renewal in churches; and 4) there is an apparent conflict between biblical theology and contextual theologies.
Loewen, Jacob A. "Myth as an Aid to Mission." Practical Anthropology. 16:4 (July-August 1969): 185-92.	Section 6 in Loewen's article, this explains how myth may be used 1) as a point of contact for missionary witness; 2) as an aid in preprogramming the message; 3) locating points of conflict, 4) properly valuating the message; 5) locating felt need; 6) as a source of information for problem solving; 7) as an aid in translation; and 8) preventing syncretism and increasing the penetration of the Gospel.
McGavran, Donald A. "The Adaptation-Syncretism Axis." In Christopaganism or Indigenous Christianity?, ed. Tetsunao Yamamori and Charles Russell Taber, 225-44. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1975.	McGavran discusses four main dimensions of the Adaptation-Syncretism axis: the geographical-historical, the anthropological, the theological and the ecclesiastical.
McGregor, Donald E. "New Guinea Myths and Scriptural Similarities." Missiology 2:1 (January 1974): 35-46.	Fundamental questions are often raised by rather typical incidents. This article will discuss four Wape myths that raise questions about deeper problems concerning the relationship of Christianity to the traditional culture and religion. In what sense is Christianity unique? In what sense is it the fulfillment of other religions and cultures? Can we have indigenization without syncretism? Is all syncretism bad?
Michelotti, Gioia. "The Search for the Best Way to Win Japan." Evangelical Missions Quarterly 31:3 (July 1995): 292-99.	When Japanese Christians build cultural bridges to the larger society by attending Buddhist funerals or inviting unsaved families to celebrate traditional Japanese festivals at their church, does that automatically herald the entrance of syncretism into their doctrine? On the other hand, do Western evangelistic methods like street preaching, tent meetings, door-to-door visitation, and tract distribution really work in an Eastern country like Japan? Exactly where on the evangelistic continuum do God's blessings start to flow-closer to one of the two extremes, near the "happy medium," or somewhere in between?
Musasiwa, Roy B. "The Finality of Jesus in Africa." Evangelical Review of Theology 17:1 (January 1993): 65-69.	Concludes that the existence of widespread syncretism in Africa reflects more poorly on how the gospel has been or is being ministered than on the people who are practicing syncretism. Jesus is indeed final. But we must minister in a way that makes our converts understand, appreciate and embrace his finality for their lives.
Nagai, Yasuko. "Being Indigenous As Well As Christian: A Case of Maiwala Christians in Papua New Guinea." Missiology 27:3 (July 1999): 393-402.	This article is a case study of contextualization in a Melanesian community and explores the challenge of how to life faithfully as a Christian and relate effectively to one's own culture. After discussing the difference between contextualization and syncretism, the author portrays several examples of how Maiwala Christians in Papua New Guinea are trying to affirm much of their traditional culture while remaining faithful to the claims of the gospel on their lives. While practices of feasting, fighting, and killing have stopped, the practice of and belief in magic continues underground.
Nicholls, Bruce. "A Living Theology for Asian Churches: Contextualization-Syncretism Debate." Asian Perspective No. 21 (n.d.): 1-24.	Examines issues related to drawing the boundaries between contextualization and syncretism. What constitutes the dividing line? Concern of Nicolls is to reflect on the unchanging universals of the Gospel and to evaluate the variables of the content and forms of doing theology in context.
Nicholls, Bruce. "A Living Theology for Asian Churches: Some Reflection on the Contextualization Syncretism Debate." In Biblical Theology in Asia, ed. Ken Gnanakan, 19-38. Bangalore, India: Asia Theological Association, 1995.	The central issue in the contemporary Asian theological debate is where do we draw the boundary between contextualization and syncretism. Assuming that contextualization is a right and necessary way of doing theology and syncretism a wrong and undesirable result of theologising, what then constitutes the dividing line between them? This is a much more complex question that at first appears, for to meaningfully translate. and communicate, the gospel from one cultural milieu to another inevitably involves adaptation, rejection and transformation. Furthermore, for the evangelist/ theologian committed to the mission of communication, he or she finds himself or herself (hereafter referred to in generic male terms) a bearer of the message and therefore a part of the communication process itself. He is unable to objectify himself from this process. Our concern is to reflect on the unchanging universals of the gospel and to evaluate the variables of the content and forms of doing theology in context.
Nthamburi, Zablon. "Toward Indigenization of Christianity in Africa: A Missiological Task." International Bulletin of Missionary Research 13:3 (July 1989): 112-18.	The objective of indigenization is to give expression to Christianity in African religio-cultural terms. It is an attempt to create a synthesis between African culture and Christianity. It aims at abolishing syncretism, which renders African Christianity ineffective. In presenting Christianity in a way that is congenial to the African experience and reality, African Christians win be enabled to live out their faith authentically and creatively. This article explores the African scene in regard to indigenization, dealing with history, African Theology, the AICs (and Kimbanguism in particular) and the task ahead.
Obeng, E. A. "Syncretism in West African Christianity? The Case of the Spiritual Churches." Africa Theological Journal 17:2 (1988): 106-17.	Revision and rearranging his 1987 article (Africa Theological Journal 16:1 (1987): 43-52).
Pato, Luke Lungile. "The African Independent Churches: A Socio-Cultural Approach." Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 72 (September 1990): 24-35.	Theoretically this paper claims that the focusing on syncretism as the dominant explanatory motif of the AICs evades the issue, and does not provide an adequate understanding of the AICs. The suggestion here is twofold: firstly, this kind of explanation of the nature of the AICs does not provide an account of the socio-cultural and religious conflicts and thus the struggle for liberation that gave rise to the emergence of the AICs. Secondly, it does not clear up the puzzlement as to why the AICs exist and continue to grow rapidly in just the fashion they do. Unless the AICs are seen primarily in terms of the historical, cultural and socio-political conflicts between the missionaries and their successors, on the one hand, and blacks and whites on the other, their character and worth cannot be adequately appreciated and understood.
Perry, Cindy. "'Bhai-Tika' and 'Tij Braka': A Case Study in the Contextualization of Two Nepal Festivals." Missiology 18:2 (April 1990): 177-83.	Contextualization is a vital issue to the young church in Nepal. Rejection of all cultural forms associated with Hinduism may undercut positive values actually compatible with a Christian world view, whereas uncritical acceptance may lead to syncretism. An examination of two Hindu festivals, and how some Nepali Christians are beginning to rethink their participation in the celebrations reveals two forms of contextualization. During Tij Braka, a festival for women, alternate participation in a parallel event has emerged, utilizing compatible forms and giving corrective Bible teaching. At Bhai-Tika, a time of sister-brother worship, the example of one young man demonstrates contextualized participation in the actual event.
Racey, David. "Contextualization: How Far Is Too Far?" Evangelical Missions Quarterly 32:3 (July 1996): 304-9.	Presents five principles to guide contextualization from crossing the line into syncretism with specific focus on Islamic contexts and the debates over extremes in Muslim ministry.
Ro, Bong Rin. "Contextualization: Asian Theology." Evangelical Review of Theology 2:1 (April 1978): 15-23.	Defines contextualization and discusses four categories of Asian theology: 1) syncretistic theology; 2) accommodational theology; 3) situational theology, and 4) biblically-oriented theology relevant to Asian needs. Calls for Asians to formulate Asian theologies which are relevant to Asians and yet based on biblical doctrines.
Sanchez, Daniel R. "Contextualization and the Missionary Endeavor." In Missiology: An Introduction to the Foundations, History, and Strategies of World Missions, ed. John Mark Terry, Ebbie Smith, and Justice Anderson, 318-33. Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman and Holman Publishers, 1998.	Introduces the concept through defining the term and tracing its use in ecumenical and evangelical circles, with an analysis of key issues: 1) the nature of the gospel; 2) the authority of the scriptures; 3) the starting point; 4) the place of traditional religions; 5) the participants in the process; 6) syncretism; and 7) the types of tools which may be employed (e.g., is Marxist economic analysis appropriate?).
Schineller, S.J., Peter. "Inculturation and Syncretism: What Is the Real Issue?" International Bulletin of Missionary Research 16:2 (April 1992): 50-3.	Discusses intersection of syncretism and contextualization, concluding that syncretism as a term cannot be redeemed (there are too many perjorative meanings associated with it). Explores syncretism as seen through several examples in church history (e.g., Jerusalem Council, Christmas, Christianity and modern culture) and then focuses on the criteria by which to distinguish adequate and valid inculturation from inadequate and invalid attempts at inculturation.
Schreiter, Robert J. "Defining Syncretism: An Interim Report." International Bulletin of Missionary Research 17:2 (April 1993): 50-3.	Argues from an anthropological perspective for a more positive definition of syncretism as a co-mingling of religious and cultural ideas. All expressions of the faith, under this definition, are syncretistic.
Starkloff, Carl F. "The Problem of Syncretism in the Search for Contextualization." Mission 1 (1994): 75-94.	As a provisional statement of my position in this paper, I hold that syncretism, far from being an aberration, is a natural historical occurrence that in our time it has become a point of departure both in the quest for interreligious dialogue and for what Christians now call "inculturation."
Sundermeier, Theo. "Inculturation and Syncretism." Scriptura S10 (1992): 32-48.	Indigenisation, inculturation--a transformation of the Gospel by means of the encounter with other cultures and religions. Does such a thesis not give reason for a growing suspicion about syncretism? Mrs. Chung's speech during the General Assembly of the World Council of Churches in Canberra, Australia in 1991 caused a revival of the debate on this topic. How are inculturation and syncretism distinguishable and how do they interact? A theological decision incorporating an understanding of syncretism becomes necessary. In the following discussion, the author distinguishes two basic forms and structures of syncretism: symbiotic syncretism (unavoidable and necessary, it describes a process rather than a condition and comes into existence in all places where primal cultures and their systems of religion are dominated by differentiated and superior societies and their systems of religion) and synthetic syncretism (which occurs horizontally in the encounter of equal systems of religion, be it an 'exchange' between tribal religions or an urban border-crossing world religion).
Temme, Jon. "Jesus in the 'New World': North American Native Responses to the European Christ." International Review of Mission 77:305 (January 1988): 59-66.	In many ways the encounter between European Christology and native religions provides an excellent crucible in which to observe certain dynamics of indigenization and syncretism. On the one hand, the drive toward indigenization is clearly seen in the native experience; and this is in spite of the fact that what was being indigenized, namely Christianity, was clearly and closely aligned with the experiences of oppression, exploitation and near-annihilation. On the other hand, christological developments in native experience also reveal the possibilities of syncretistic alteration. Jesus sometimes became an "extra" spirit or deity for whom a role had to be found. Or he was often subordinated as intermediary to the real divinity of Power. It seems that questions raised long ago are still issues today. Must one stop being a native in terms of ethnic experience in order to be or become a Christian? Can there truly be such a thing as native Christology? Can Jesus find a home in the New World's indigenous religion? A definite satisfactory answer has yet to be advanced.
Terry, John Mark. "Contextual Evangelism Strategies." In Missiology: An Introduction to the Foundations, History, and Strategies of World Missions, ed. John Mark Terry, Ebbie Smith, and Justice Anderson, 450-66. Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman and Holman Publishers, 1998.	A balanced contextual presentation comes from teaming about the context of the society and culture in which the gospel is being presented. It begins with understanding the nature of contextual evangelism. Contextual evangelization can be defined as presenting the uncompromised gospel of Jesus Christ in the socio-cultural, ethnic, and linguistic context of the hearers so they may respond and be discipled into a church. Contextual evangelism, then, provides a starting place in any church or mission field. It can be further understood by looking at the parts of the definition.
Terry, John Mark; Smith,Ebbie; and Anderson, Justice, eds. Missiology: An Introduction to the Foundations, History, and Strategies of World Missions, Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman and Holman Publishers, 1998.
Tippet, Alan. "Christopaganism or Indigenous Christianity?" In Christopaganism or Indigenous Christianity?, ed. Tetsunao Yamamori and Charles Russell Taber, 13-35. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1975.	The first chapter of the book was assigned the role of preparing the stage for our exchange, taking up a position in such a way that the other writers could react either positively or negatively, either by developing the argument further or by turning it in another direction. In any case, the first presentation, it was felt, should pinpoint the missionary problem which underlies the whole book--namely, how to avoid syncretism and to achieve an indigenous Christianity. So often the search for the latter leaves us with the former instead. The purpose of this presentation, then, after delineating the scope of the series and defining the terms, will be to demonstrate the character of the alternatives -Christopaganism or indigeneity.
Tippett, Alan R. "Christopaganism or Indigenous Christianity?" In Readings in Dynamic Indigeneity, ed. Charles H. Kraft and Tom N. Wisley, 400-21. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1979.	Tippett directs our attention to the issue of avoiding theological syncretism in the process of trying to achieve an indigenous Christianity. Syncretism is defined as "the union of two opposite forces, beliefs, systems, or tenets so that the united form is a new thing, neither one nor the other." This definition is worked into the complexities of planting churches across cultures. He assumes that missionaries are bound to work within the limitations of the cultural forms of the people with whom he is working. The questions of the extent and nature of the "pull of the Gospel in the direction of the culture continues to be primary.
Tippett, Alan R. "Formal Transformation and Faith Distortion." In Christopaganism or Indigenous Christianity?, ed. Tetsunao Yamamori and Charles Russell Taber, 97-118. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1975.	In my first chapter my focus was on the nature of syncretism rather than on indigenous Christianity. In this chapter I shall dig more deeply into the subject from the position of the indigenous church confronting syncretism, and the dynamics of the experience of the Christian fellowship group (church) in its encounter with the world and with its culture.
Yego, Josphat K. "Appreciation for and Warnings about Contextualization." Evangelical Missions Quarterly 16:3 (July 1980): 153-57.	Practical changes because of contextualization can help the churches, but Yego warns of potential pitfalls as well: syncretism (the cry to return to traditional ways can go too far); lowering the perceived need to study original biblical languages; the danger of cultural relativism.