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Topics: Ancestors

Biblio Format Annotation
Abijole, Bayo. "St. Paul's Concept of Principalities and Powers in African Context." Africa Theological Journal 17:2 (1988): 118-29. Concept of world powers very much part of Paul's thinking and theology; this is explored and the relevance to the contemporary African context is discussed.
Adams, Daniel J. "Ancestors, Folk Religion, and Korean Christianity." In Perspectives on Christianity in Korea and Japan: The Gospel and Culture in East Asia, ed. Mark R. Mullins and Richard Fox Young, 95-114. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1995. In this brief study we shall examine ancestor rites as practiced in Korea with a view toward showing how Korean Christians have dealt with this issue in their churches. That there is considerable difference of opinion among Korean Christians concerning this issue suggests there is more than one way of approaching the problem of ancestor rites. Indeed, there are actually two levels of participation in the rites--the Confucian, or more precisely Neo-Confucian, and that of shamanism, the prevailing folk religion of Korea. The intertwining of these two levels of participation has given rise to a misunderstanding of ancestor rites among the churches, beginning with the earliest Christian contacts in the late 1700s and continuing into the present. This misunderstanding has been the cause of intense persecution, suffering, and death, and continues to be the source of considerable controversy. One way of correcting this misunderstanding is to think of ancestor rites in terms of theoretical constructs, in this case making a distinction between espoused theories and theories-in-use The Neo-Confucian practice of ancestor rites as veneration is the espoused theory; the shamanistic practice of ancestor rites as worship is the theory-in-use. This distinction is important for understanding the complex relationship between ancestors, folk religion, and Korean Christianity in both its Catholic and Protestant forms.
Anderson, Allan. "African Pentecostalism and the Ancestor Cult: Confrontation or Compromise?" Missionalia 21:1 (April 1993): 26-39. A subject that has intrigued scholars of African churches, at least since SundkIer's pioneering work in the 1940s, has been the relationship between Christian and African traditional beliefs. The ancestor cult, occupying such a pivotal place in this discussion, is a belief which has met with widely differing Christian responses. This article analyses responses to the ancestor cult in "African Pentecostal churches," partly because they form one of the most significant movements in African Christianity, and partly because their encounter with the African religious thought world has penetrated that world more effectively than has any Western theologising. Much of the information presented in this paper was gathered during field research in Soshanguve, Pretoria between 1990 and 1992. The research consisted of a preliminary quantitative survey conducted between October 1990 and April 1991 in which 1638 families were interviewed.
Asian Theological Association. "A Working Document Towards a Christian Response to Ancestor Practices." Asian Perspective No. 33 (n.d.): 1-9. Working document from the Consultation on the Christian Response to Ancestor Practices held in Taiwan, Dec. 26-31, 1983. Explores historical, biblical, and practical perspectives.
Bediako, Kwame. "Biblical Christologies in the Context of African Traditional Religions." In Sharing Jesus in the Two Thirds World: Evangelical Christologies from the Contexts of Poverty, Powerlessness, and Religious Pluralism, ed. Vinay Samuel and Chris Sugden, 81-122. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984. A survey of the issues raised for Christian mission and dialogue with African traditional religions, for developing our understanding and presentation of Jesus, especially examining the understanding of Jesus in relation to the Ancestors and the African concept of Kingship. The writer appeals for a fresh approach to proclaiming Christ amidst African religions, since previous proclamation suffered from disregard of African religion and an inadequate apprehension of the Good News by the missionaries.
Berensten, Jan-Martin. "Ancestor Worship in Missiological Perspective." In Christian Alternatives to Ancestor Practices, ed. Bong Rin Ro, 261-85. . Taichung, Taiwan: Asia Theological Association, 1985. Berentsen observes that ancestor rites are thoroughly integrated into the life of the Japanese people historically, religiously, and sociologically, The practice of ancestor worship goes beyond any sociological structure and penetrates "a problem of existential religious significance touching upon the very foundations of human existence." The author points out three major problematic areas in ancestor worship that conflict with the message of the gospel; namely, ancestor worship has ethical implications within the society, it provides communication between the living and the dead, and it acknowledges supernatural powers of the spirits of the deceased over their living descendant s. Since the question of ancestor rituals is so complicated and paradoxical, the author's recommendation to Christian missions is to adopt some ancestor worship practices and reject others. At the same time, Christians must reinterpret some of the rites in order to create new meanings without compromising the teachings of Scripture. (Reprinted, with permission of Japanese Religions).
Berensten, Jan-Martin. "Individual and Collective in the Family Context: The 4th Commandment in Japanese Perspective." In Christian Alternatives to Ancestor Practices, ed. Bong Rin Ro, 61-76. Taichung, Taiwan: Asia Theological Association, 1985. One of the common misunderstandings about Christianity by non-Christians in Japan, China, and Korea is that Christians do not properly honor their ancestors. Such a misunderstanding results from ignorance of the Fourth Commandment of God. (The Fourth Commandment referred to in this paper, which the Lutheran tradition accepts, is considered to be the Fifth Commandment by other denominations.) Dr. Berensten states that the Fourth Commandment gives a two-dimensional instruction regarding the parent-child relationship. First, the child must honor his parents, and secondly, the parents must be responsible for bringing up their child in the way of the Lord. The author further points out that the patriarchal family in biblical times had both vertical and horizontal relationships. Vertically the place of ancestors among the people of Israel was prominent in terms of keeping genealogies and being buried in the place of their fathers. Horizontally the solidarity of the living members of the family became important, as is exemplified in the Cornelius household baptism. There is no simple solution to reconcile the individual faith of a Christian with his Japanese collective family context.
Berentsen, Jan-Martin. "The Ancestral Rites--Barrier or Bridge?" The Japan Christian Quarterly 49:4 (Fall 1983): 160-68. The fact that ancestral issues are not unique to Japan should be kept in mind when we ponder the intricate problems in the Japanese setting, even though peoples and places and periods in history all have their uniqueness. Two issues are of principal importance: 1) the relationship between the religious and the non-religious nature of the rites and 2) the relationship between form and content of the rites. Author rejects both simple acceptance and blanket condemnation, and proposes a way of paradoxical encounter, "accommodation through confrontation" and "confrontation through accommodation." The final issue is not barrier or bridge, but both barrier and bridge at the same time, and concludes: Real indigenization of Christianity in this respect, can materialize only via a dialectical process of rejection and adoption whereby the motives of the rites are reinterpreted into a new whole in the light of the gospel.
Carpenter, Mary Yeo. "Familism and Ancestor Veneration: A Look at Chinese Funeral Rites." Missiology 24:4 (October 1996): 503-17. Ancestor veneration remains a major obstacle to conversion among the Chinese the world over. While the issue often comes to a head over funeral rites, ancestor veneration cannot be understood in isolation. Rather one must look at the broader issues of the cult of the family a tenet propagated by Confucius, putting loyalty to the family above every other claim including that of the gods or the state. Ancestor veneration then is not a simple act that can be abolished by deciding which rituals in a funeral are biblical and which are not. Rather it is part of a complex web that needs to be understood in its totality.
Chew, John. "Ancestral/Parental-Children Ties in the Old Testament and Their Possible Bearing on Filial Piety." In Church and Culture: Singapore Context, ed. by Bobby E. K. Sng and Chee Pang Choong, 47-64. Singapore: Graduates' Christian Fellowship, 1991. It is not our task here to address the tensions faced by Chinese Christians over issues arising from Filial Piety (FP) nor are we arguing that the Old Testament data is presented with that concern as the conscious central or organizing principle. As a prolegomena to a Christian view of FP, it would be adequate for us to note that the Old Testament is not only rich in data about familial relationships, but that it is also often structured around or expressed through the perspective of those relationships. This paper attempts to lay bare this neglected dimension for theological discussion. This is necessary if the gospel were to be given the crucial, initial hearing. Only then, can it speak meaningfully in the Asian setting. In virtually all Asian societies, parental relationship with children provides the context, ethos and motivation which give rise to the various aspects of life. The importance of FP and the family for the Chinese is well recognized. As such, if the Christian faith can be shown to be deeply concerned with parental-children relationship, it would greatly enhance the communication of the gospel, as well as its perception by these cultural communities.
Chiu, Andrew. "Is There Ancestor Worship in the Old Testament?" Evangelical Review of Theology 8:2 (October 1984): 217-224. Was ancestor worship practiced in the OId Testament? If the Old Testament refers only to the time span from creation to the New Testament the answer to this question is in the affirmative. if it refers to the people and the land of Israel, or to the canonical books which are accepted by both the Jews and the Christians, the picture might be different. Concludes: These monolatrists, worshipped one God, focused their attention on the will and acts of God in historical events, emphasized the spirit rather than forms, and said that sincerity of penitence could not dispense with the ritual act. They also observed the strict and firm First Commandment that you shall have no other gods before me. Consequently, there is no place for the assertion that ancestor worship was practiced in Israel.
Daneel, Marthinus L. "The Christian Gospel and the Ancestor Cult." Missionalia 1:2 (August 1973): 46-72. All too often the Christian practice has been to judge the ancestor cult as heathenish idolatry without considering' the psycho-social factors which are at work in this belief. In so doing, we did not do justice to the elenctic approach to the traditional African. There is, therefore, every inducement to take the empirical survival of the ancestor cult and its nature and influence in the lives of African Christians seriously and to determine its scope before a responsible theological approach can be made to the existing problems, In this paper we shall first consider the traditional ancestor cult and rites, in an attempt to show the actual and still surviving ramifications of them. Then the various methods of approach to the ancestor cult of the Protestant, Roman Catholic and Independent Churches will be discussed before concluding with a few theological remarks. It should be noted here that this is not intended to be a study of theological sources nor of the African in general. This is a study in depth of the Shona of Zimbabwe.
Dapila, Fabian N. "The Importance of the Dagaaba Ancestors and Their Role in the Process of Inculturation." Mission 3 (1996): 91-122. Examines Dagaaba of west Africa social structure (especially ancestors) and the sacred dimensions of social activities in light of the social structure, then explores Catholic teachings on death and the saints, and finally develops an approach to integrate the two.
Dzobo, Noah K. "African Ancestor Cult: a Theological Appraisal." Reformed World 38:6 (1985): 333-340. The African devotion to his ancestors has been taken as the singular characteristic of African religions awareness. This devotion and its object, however, have been misinterpreted and misrepresented both by many foreign and African students of the indigenous African culture. The main purpose of this paper is to present a careful analysis and exposition of this very important African cultural material and to examine it for any theological and philosophical significance which it may have for the development of the Christian faith on the African continent.
Ela, Jean-Marc. "Ancestors and Christian Faith: An African Problem." In Liturgy and Cultural Religious Traditions, ed. Herman A. P. Schmidt and David Noel Power, 34-50. New York: Seabury Press, 1977. If the past illumines the present, how are we to re-evaluate the Christian message in order to prevent it from being a disturbing influence in an age of acculturation when, faced with a dominant civilization, the African rejects any surrender of his cultural identity? That is certainly the vital context of the question with which I am concerned here. In fact, even if the ancestors are not discredited and accorded a peripheral position, how are we to live and express our faith so that it is not the alienating reflection of a foreign world behaving aggressively towards indigenous customs and beliefs? At a time when, in certain burgeoning, communities, the Elders are reproaching young Christians with forgetting the dead, surely we must ask what the Gospel's attitude is to the ancestor cult. The question should be put unflinchingly if we are to pay due attention to the actual existence of each of our African nations with its diversity, fundamental human aspirations and problems: Can the Church in black Africa become the possible location of communion with the ancestors?
Elder, Gove. "Responses of Thai-Chinese Churches to the Ancestor Problem." In Christian Alternatives to Ancestor Practices, ed. Bong Rin Ro, 225-33. Taichung, Taiwan: Asia Theological Association, 1985. Ancestor worship is still prevalent among the three million Chinese in Thailand and serves as a form of socio-cultural identity for this minority group. Elder discusses the theological and ritualistic responses to ancestor worship and recommends Christian apologetical approaches to this issue. Christians must take different approaches to the three classes of Chinese people in Thailand: the poor, labor-oriented Chinese; the business-oriented; and the devotees of Chinese folk religions. Most of all, Christians must show their deep respect to their parents and relatives and, with a positive attitude, respect--but avoid worshiping--their deceased ancestors.
Eng, Lim Guek. "Christianity Encounters Ancestor Worship in Taiwan." Evangelical Review of Theology 8:2 (October 1984): 225-235. The aim of this article is to develop a more adequate approach to Taiwanese ancestor worship. It rests upon the assumption that ancestor worship in Taiwan has never been effectively encountered by Christianity and hence continues in its current virile form as a major roadblock to the growth of the Church especially in rural villages. The author shows that ancestor worship among the Minnan Chinese of Taiwan has its roots in primitive animism (rather than in Confucianism). Using a theological analytical approach she suggests some functional substitutes for Christian Taiwanese.
Gehman, Richard J. "Will the African Ancestors Be Saved?" Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology 14:2 (1995): 85-97. Focus on a difficult question which needs more extensive treatment by evangelicals in Africa who will explore carefully the whole question of salvation of those who have never heard the Gospel. A burning question that will not go away is this: "Will any of the forefathers in Africa, who never heard the Gospel, be saved?" This question arises repeatedly. "What will happen to our fathers who lived before the Gospel was brought to Africa? Will they spend eternity in hell?" This difficult question that brings much pain and concern and is the focus of the article.
Heuter, R. "Conscience and Culture: Sickness and the Spirits of the Dead." Catalyst 4:2 (1974): 3-17. An effort to show one the least known aspects of illness in New Guinea, the influence of the spirits of the dead. Goal is to open our horizons; to help foster a concept of wanting to learn, of wanting to develop and understand, and thereby become useful tools of medical work in New Guinea.
Hung, Daniel M. "Mission Blockade: Ancestor Worship." Evangelical Missions Quarterly 19:1 (January 1983): 32-40. Ancestral practices are the greatest obstacle to Christian mission among the Chinese. This article explores the reasons for the practices and suggests practical approaches.
Hung, Daniel M. "Mission Blockade: Ancestor Worship." In Christian Alternatives to Ancestor Practices, ed. Bong Rin Ro, 199-208. Taichung, Taiwan: Asia Theological Association, 1985. Hung, who comes from a non-Christian home in which ancestor worship was faithfully practiced, describes his personal agony at the funeral rituals of his mother. While he and his brother tried to maintain their Christian testimony by refusing to participate in all superstitious practices of the pagan funeral rituals, they also wanted to maintain harmony with the rest of their family and show their filial piety to their mother. Hung's experience is shared by thousands of Chinese Christians who come from non-Christian families. Hung states that the missionaries condemned the practice of ancestor worship in China and Taiwan; nevertheless, the Chinese Christians must adopt a more positive approach to the issue of ancestor worship rather than an outright condemnation of it which builds barriers to the gospel.
Kim, Myung Hyuk. "Ancestor Worship in the Korean Church." Evangelical Review of Theology 8:2 (October 1984): 236-245. The author outlines the history of the Korean Churches' response to ancestor worship and discusses the future possibilities in the light of growing secularization of Korean society. Concludes: It is time that we evangelicals should be alerted to fully understand the relation between the Christian Gospel and secular culture and to provide clear-cut solutions in concrete situations. We may be doing well if we realize the criticizing, transforming and recreating power and function of the Gospel in various cultures as it has been seen throughout the history of Christianity.
Kim, Myung-Hyuk. "Historical Analysis of Ancestor Worship in the Korean Church." In Christian Alternatives to Ancestor Practices, ed. Bong Rin Ro, 163-77. Taichung, Taiwan: Asia Theological Association, 1985. The Roman Catholic and Protestant Christians in Korea experienced persecution and martyrdom at the end of the 18th century and in the 19th century because of their opposition to ancestor worship. During the Japanese occupation of Korea (1910-1945), thousands of Korean Christians suffered persecution and shed their blood for their opposition to the imposition of Japanese Shinto shrine worship. The Korean church, therefore, has been known as "a suffering church." Dr. Kim points out that Korean Christians made a clear-cut testimony for Christ in opposition to the traditional practice of ancestor worship and paid their price in persecution and martyrdom; consequently, the Korean church has grown very rapidly over the years, encompassing 25% of the population. It is interesting to study the history of the Korean, Chinese and Japanese churches in relation to ancestor worship and to observe the different rates of church growth in these countries.
King, Fergus J. "Angels and Ancestors: A Basis for Christology?" Mission Studies 9:1 (1994): 10-26. In his book Christian Origins, Christopher Rowland describes, as a feature of Inter-Testamental Judaism, the concept of the "angelic mediator," that is, of the righteous man ascended into heaven who intercedes for his people. In much African Traditional Religion, a similar role seems to be given the ancestors, whose continued existence in a metaphysical state which takes them "nearer to God" allows them to help their descendants on earth. The purpose of this paper is to give a brief overview of the concepts of "angelic mediators" and "ancestors" and to see whether or not these different beliefs share common features which could be applied to the development of local theologies.
Kitshoff, Mike. "Isaiah Shembe's Views on the Ancestors in Biblical Perspective." Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 95 (July 1996): 23-36. Characterizing the Shembe Church, Vilakazi et al stated that "the whole church could be said to be an attempt at an even blending of the Christian and Zulu teachings and practices" (1986:80). Concerning the role of Zulu religious practices, the authors asserted that the "real, vital religion of the Zulus" was based on the ancestral cult (1986:11). From these statements one may get the impression that the ancestral cult assumed a prominent place in the teachings and practices of Isaiah Shembe. To determine whether this impression is correct we are going to test Shembe's experiences and practices against what Vilakazi et al call "several ways by which the ancestral spirits can reveal themselves to the living" (1986:13-17), while at the same time listening to the views and teachings of Shembe himself on the place and role of the ancestors.
Kiwovele, Judah. "An African Perspective on the Priesthood of All Believers." In Theology and the Black Experience: The Lutheran Heritage Interpreted by African and African-American Theologians, ed. Albert Pero and Ambrose Moyo, 56-75. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1988. Permit me to sketch some suggestions about what the priesthood of believers in Africa could look like. No matter what the circumstances, we must keep a self-critical perspective, particularly in connection with the relationships we attribute to the living-dead and the living members of a family and kinship circle. Prayer to the living-dead, even to apostles, for protection and help is a denial of our faith in which we say that it is only through Jesus that we come to the Father. Sacrifices offered to the livingdead likewise are denials of our stated faith that Jesus is the only sacrifice for sin. For us to pray and offer sacrifices to our ancestors is to make them into gods. For us to ask the living-dead to intercede on our behalf before God denies that in Christ we have direct access to the loving God who gives us grace and peace.
LaPointe, Eugene. "Africans' Ancestors Veneration and Christian Worship." Mission 2 (1995): 207-218. I cannot just ask the question: what are the elements of the traditional religion of the Basotho which can be introduced into Christian worship? This would be to stay at the level of adaptation. Maybe this can be done and should be done, at least at a certain stage, but the real questions to ask are: what is the Christian worship and what is the traditional Basotho worship and how far could the first one assume the second and compose with it? Finally, I would also consider the "sesothoization" of what is absolutely proper to Christianity and the Gospel: the Christian worship and the sacraments. Here it is a question of introducing the symbolic system of the Basotho, their way of expressing things, their language, their music, etc. There is no limit in principle in doing so, except that the liturgy should remain entirely evangelical, but equally totally sesotho.
Liao, David. "Christian Alternatives to Ancestor Worship in Taiwan." In Christian Alternatives to Ancestor Practices, ed. Bong Rin Ro, 209-218. Taichung, Taiwan: Asia Theological Association, 1985. In this excerpt from The Unresponsive; Resistant or Neglected (Moody Press. 1972, pp. 127-134), David Liao gives reasons for the slow growth of the Hakka church in Taiwan. He points out that the persistent practice of ancestor worship is one dominant reason and considers ancestor worship to be a religious practice rather than simply moral-philosophical filial piety. Liao compares the traditional negative approach with the positive approach to ancestor worship, and finally recommends a number of functional substitutes that Christians can utilize in their testimony to non-Christian family members as well as to Christians.
Liaw, Stephen. "Ancestor Worship in Contemporary Taiwanese Society and Evangelism of the Chinese." In Christian Alternatives to Ancestor Practices, ed. Bong Rin Ro, 181-197. Taichung, Taiwan: Asia Theological Association, 1985. The problem of ancestor worship is possibly the most crucial issue which Christians in Taiwan must face. Liaw elaborately describes how ancestor worship has been integrated into the lives of the Chinese people in Taiwan. He recalls the lack of appreciation of the early Western missionaries for the Chinese culture and advocates that the Chinese church find its own theology to accommodate important aspects of Chinese culture, while remaining loyal to Jesus Christ. Liaw, who is pastor of a Baptist church in Taichung, explains how he conducts funeral services for his members by "Christianizing" some of the traditional practices of ancestor worship. He says that we must break down the barriers between the gospel and Chinese culture if we want to communicate the Good News of Jesus Christ to the Chinese people.
Lin, Chi-Ping. "Ancestor Worship: The Reactions of Chinese Churches." In Christian Alternatives to Ancestor Practices, ed. Bong Rin Ro, 147-61. Taichung, Taiwan: Asia Theological Association, 1985. Lin points out that ancestor worship is possibly the most important traditional practice among the Chinese; therefore, the Christian church cannot afford to ignore this issue. Both Nestorian Christianity and the Chinese Jewish community adhered to the practice of ancestor worship. The age-lonq battle on this issue between the Jesuits and the Dominican-Franciscan priests within the Roman Catholic Church was ended by the decree of Pope Pius XII in 1939 which allowed the Roman Catholics to participate in ancestor worship. For the Protestant Church, the evangelicals and liberals were divided on this issue. While the evangelical missionaries such as Hudson Taylor of the China Inland Mission vehemently opposed ancestor worship as an idolatrous practice, the liberals such as William Martin allowed it within the church as a way of accommodating the gospel to the Chinese cultures. The two missionary conferences on ancestor worship in the later 19th century finalized the division between the evangelical and liberal churches in the Protestant Church in China. Beginning in the 1960s in Taiwan, the governmental promotion of Chinese cultural resurgence has negatively affected the growth of the church and caused a segment of evangelical church leaders to reconsider the question of ancestor worship. In order to accommodate Chinese culture into the church, Lin strongly supports this new movement which is known as "Searching for Roots."
Mantovani, Ennio. "Ancestors in Melanesia: Towards a Melanesian and Christian Understanding." Catalyst 20:1 (1990): 21-40. Presents an alternative to the traditional interpretation of 'offerings' to the ancestors; they are not necessarily sacrifices, but, most likely, exchanges of a social nature between members of the same social community. In effect, ancestral practices may be viewed more as secular exchanges than acts of worship. This helps clarify the nature of the relationship to the ancestors, and has resulting pastoral consequences.
Miola, M. P. "The Effect of Belief in the Living Dead on the Church's Mission in South Africa." Africa Theological Journal 18:2 (1989): 140-50. Intent of paper is to show how the Gospel should be communicated to the peoples of South Africa in light of the belief system surrounding the living dead and the effect of that system on how the church should communicate the Gospel.
Nilles, John. "Simbu Ancestors and Christian Worship: Ancestor Worship and Cults of the Spirits of the Dead among the Peoples of the Highlands of Papua New Guinea and Their Compatibility with Christian Rites and Liturgy. Catalyst 7:3 (1977): 163-90. Overviews of Simbu beliefs and practices and discusses compatibility with Christian beliefs and liturgy together with proposals for adopting certain Simbu beliefs and practices into the liturgy.
Nxumalo, Jabulani A. "Christ and the Ancestors in the African World: A Pastoral Consideration." Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 32 (September 1980): 3-21. Explores various topics related to developing a pastoral ministry within the African context of the ancestors. Advocates that African theologians and pastors of souls should make constant attempts to 'purify' elements of African traditional religion and incorporate these into Christian Faith, for the benefit of the African Christian and for the benefit of the Universal Church.
Offner, Clark B. "A Foreign Christian's Struggle with Japanese Concepts of Respect, Honor, Veneration, Worship." In Incarnating the Gospel in the Japanese Context: Papers Presented at the Twenty-Ninth Hayama Men's Missionary Seminar, Amagi Sanso, January 5-7, 1988. ed. Fritz Sprunger, 74-83. Tokyo, Japan: Tokyo Mission Research Institute, 1988. During an instruction class preparing Japanese seekers for baptism a middle-aged housewife asks whether, as a Christian, she can continue to present the daily offerings and care for the butsudan and the kamidana (family altars) as heretofore; an earnest young man inquires about his Christian responsibility as the eldest son relating to the traditional memorial services for the dead; others are concerned about the proper Christian attitude at a Buddhist funeral. Missionaries, pastors, teachers or others who seek to provide Christian instruction and counsel for Japanese seekers or believers are faced with the problem of what advice to give in response to the complicated questions related to so-called "Ancestor Worship." It was to gain deeper insight into the true nature of this subject and to better equip myself to deal with, if not answer, the difficult queries related to it that, some years ago, I began my research in this area.
Oosthuizen, George C. "Interpretation of Demonic Powers in Southern African Independent Churches." Missiology 16:1 (January 1988): 3-22. African Independent Churches (AIC) have grown especially in South Africa at a tremendous pace. Various reasons account for this tremendous growth such as several major emphases: Africanization of the church, socioeconomic deprivation, the adaptation process from the microcosmic to the macrocosmic world, and a holistic approach to healing which takes note of the indigenous cosmology. The latter aspect is a central issue. There are two types of diseases--natural, behind which are no malicious external forces, and those which are understood only within the context of African cosmology such as witchcraft, sorcery, ancestor wrath, spirit-possession. The missionaries ignored these forces and the problems Africans encountered with them. To these malicious forces the AIC give attention and their handling of them makes a decisive impact. This is the main theme of the article.
Phan, Peter C. "The Christ of Asia: An Essay on Jesus as the Eldest Son and Ancestor." Studia Missionalia 45 (1996): 25-46. This essay intends to make a contribution to the ongoing Asian christological reflections by situating Christ within the context of the Confucian teaching on family relationships, especially on the role of the eldest son, and the Asian practice of veneration of ancestors. It will first describe Confucian family ethics and the practice of ancestor veneration as these have been practised in certain Asian countries, focusing on Vietnam in particular (the author's home country). Secondly, it will explore the possibility of viewing Christ as the eldest son and as an ancestor. Finally, it will raise the question whether this christology needs to be complemented by liberation christology, especially as this is presented by Asian feminist theologians. The burden of the essay is to argue for the portraiture of the Christ as the eldest son and an ancestor within the context of Vietnamese culture and religious traditions and in light of feminist liberation theology.
Pollitzer, Ph. "Ancestor Veneration in the Oruuano Movement." Missionalia 12:3 (November 1984): 124-28. Today the Oruuano Movement may be characterized as being the Evangelical-Lutheran Church for the Herero in Namibia. It belongs to the Ethiopian type of Independent churches and allows its members ancestor veneration without reservation. It draws (in practice, rather than in principle) its membership almost exclusively from the Maharero faction of the Herero nation with the Mbanderu having their own church, the Church of Africa, which came into existence after political rivalries with the Maharero, and the Zeraua mainly staying faithful to the Evangelical Lutheran Church. This short article focuses on the phenomenon of ancestor worship in the Oruuano. How does it manifest itself? Which role does it play in the devotion and life of the movement?
Reid, David. "Japanese Christians and the Ancestors." The Japan Christian Quarterly 56:1 (Winter 1990): 24-41. The present inquiry is concerned with the question of how Protestant Christianity has changed since its spread from North America to Japan. It focuses on the question not of official doctrinal or liturgical change in institutional Protestantism, but of how living Japanese Christians of the Nihon Kirisuto Kyodan regard and treat the ancestors. The approach employed here will be synchronic. It compares Christian with non-Christian in present-day Japanese culture, distinguishes two groups among Christian and non-Christian Japanese depending on how they relate to their ancestors, and asks whether the differences between the Christians in these groups signify a change in Protestant Christianity.
Reimer, Reginald E. "The Religious Dimension of the Vietnamese Cult of the Ancestors." Missiology 3:2 (April 1975): 155-68. The thesis of this article is that the traditional Vietnamese Cult of the Ancestors is, indeed, part and parcel of Animism--the underlying web of Vietnamese religion. In its traditional form the Cult is in every sense a religion and, as such, will inevitably come into confrontation with biblical Christianity. The key to understanding the Cult lies in understanding Vietnamese beliefs concerning the soul. The thrust of this article will be to show the religious dimension of the Cult which is in conflict with Christian belief. In so doing I hope to lay to rest the idea that the origin and primary meaning of the institution is ethical in nature.
Ro, Bong Rin, ed. Christian Alternatives to Ancestor Practices, Taichung, Taiwan: Asia Theological Association, 1985.
Shibata, Chizuo. "Christianity and Japanese Ancestor Worship Considered as a Basic Cultural Form." Northeast Asia Journal of Theology 22/23 (March / Sept. 1979): 62-71. The mores of ancestor worship lie at the root of Japanese culture, though they were never associated with any organized system of faith. What are the implications of this in the context of confessing Christianity in Japan?
Smith, Henry N. "Ancestor Practices in Contemporary Hong Kong: Religious Ritual or Social Custom?" Asia Journal of Theology 3:1 (1989): 31-45. A fresh investigation into ancestral practices--are they religious ritual or social custom (from the emic perspective)? The paper summarizes interview results of Hong Kong residents (n=163) and discusses the extent to which ancestor worship as practiced in Hong Kong might or might not constitute a religion in conflict with basic Christian principles.
Smith, Henry N. "Christianity and Ancestor Practices in Hong Kong: Toward a Contextualized Strategy." Missiology 17:1 (January 1989): 27-38. Christianity's response to ancestor worship remains a live issue throughout Asia, including Hong Kong, where residents sense a need for cultural continuity, where traditional rites have gradually been secularized, but where the church continues to depend on Western thought-forms and customs. A viable contextual strategy should simultaneously accommodate traditional forms and values, reinterpret them in the light of Christian theology and ethics, and innovate forms which are consistent with biblical faith, with the Chinese cultural heritage, and with emerging social values. By accommodating, reinterpreting, and innovating, the Chinese churches can express their cultural loyalty, maintain biblical integrity, and pursue the transformational goal of contextualization.
Sundermeier, Theo. "Unio Analogica: Understanding African Dynamistic Patterns of Thought." Africa Theological Journal 11:1 (1982): 36-62. Describes in general terms African world view and focuses in particular on belief in God, ancestors, and magic.
Tan, Kim-Sai. "Christian Alternatives to Ancestor Worship in Malaysia." In Christian Alternatives to Ancestor Practices, ed. Bong Rin Ro, 219-224. Taichung, Taiwan: Asia Theological Association, 1985. Ancestor worship is a very important issue among the five million Chinese who constitute 36% of the total population of Malaysia. Tan encourages Chinese Christians to ostensibly show more respect to their deceased ancestors, particularly at the funeral service, because they are often criticized by non-Christians for their disrespect and a lack of concern for their ancestors. At the funeral service, Tan maintains, a Christian should bow his head in a moment of prayer and meditation before the coffin without participating in heathen religious rituals. Christians must find ways of substituting ancestor worship rituals with Christian alternatives so that they can be more effective witnesses to non-Christians.
Yu, Chi Ping. "Filial Piety and Chinese Pastoral Care." In Doing Theology with Asian Resources, ed. Choo Lak Yeow, 157-70. Singapore: ATESEA, 1993. Fifteen years ago I returned from the United States to Taiwan to begin my pastoral ministry with Chinese youth. I brought with me theories of pastoral care and limited clinical experience which I had acquired in the United States. No sooner had I become involved in various cases of crisis intervention than I realized that those people who sought my help were neither "objects" of care nor "clients" in an American sense. Rather, they were "subjects" who brought with them their distinct socio-cultural heritage, and who sought to cope with their growth challenges in ways congenial to their values and understanding of wellbeing. The sudden realization of the foreignness of my pastoral care training caught me off guard. From then on, I became increasingly aware of some of the cultural assumptions which lurk behind the American understanding and practice of pastoral care and of some styles of counselling which are uniquely American. It was this realization that triggered my search for ways to contextualize pastoral care in the Chinese setting. This paper chooses to focus on only one of the most fundamental values in Chinese society, that is, filial piety. The issue it seeks to address is that: Taking the value of filial piety as a contextual consideration, what shape may Chinese pastoral care take?